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This article refers to human nutrition and diet. For plant based diets in the animal kingdom see, herbivore.

Vegetarianism is the practice of a diet that excludes all animal flesh, including poultry, game, fish, shellfish or crustacea, and slaughter by-products.^[1]

There are several variants of the diet, some of which also exclude eggs and/or some products produced from animal labor such as dairy products and honey. Veganism, for example, excludes all animal products from diet and in some definitions from attire also,^[2] whether or not the production of clothing or items has involved the actual death of an animal (dairy, eggs, honey, wool, silk, down feathers, etc.).

A generic term for both vegetarianism and veganism as well as for similar diets is "Plant-based diets".[4]

The reasons for choosing vegetarianism may be related to moral, religious, cultural, ethical, aesthetic, environmental, social, economic, political, or health concerns.

Contents 1 Terminology and varieties of vegetarianism 1.1 Main varieties 1.2 Other dietary practices commonly associated with vegetarianism 1.3 Semi-vegetarian diets 2 Etymology 3 History 4 Motivations and benefits 4.1 Religious and spiritual 4.1.1 Hinduism 4.1.2 Jainism 4.1.3 Buddhism 4.1.4 Sikhism 4.1.5 Judaism 4.1.6 Christianity 4.1.7 Islam 4.1.8 Neopaganism 4.2 Health 4.2.1 Nutritional 4.2.2 Food safety 4.2.2.1 E. coli 4.2.2.2 Other food scares 4.2.3 Medical 4.2.4 Physiological 4.3 Ethical 4.4 Environmental 4.5 Labor conditions 4.6 Economical 4.7 Psychological 4.8 Cultural influence 5 Health effects 5.1 Longevity 5.2 Nutrition 6 Demographics 6.1 Gender 6.2 Country-specific information 7 Vegetarian Textiles 7.1 Leather 7.2 Silk 7.3 Wool 8 See also 9 References

[edit] Terminology and varieties of vegetarianism

[edit] Main varieties

There are a variety of different practices of vegetarianism. The following table summarizes the most common types of vegetarian diet:

Foods in the main vegetarian diets

Diet Name	Meat, (including Fish and Poultry)	Eggs	Dairy	Honey
Ovo-lacto vegetarianism	No	Yes	Yes	Yes
Lacto vegetarianism	No	No	Yes	Yes
Ovo vegetarianism	No	Yes	No	Yes
Veganism	No	No	No	No[3][4][5]

[edit] Other dietary practices commonly associated with vegetarianism

• Fruitarianism is a diet of only fruit, nuts, seeds, and other plant matter that can be gathered without harming the plant.
• Macrobiotic diet is a diet of mostly whole grains and beans. Not all macrobiotics are vegetarians as some consume fish.
• Natural hygiene in its classic form recommends a diet principally of raw vegan foods.
• Raw veganism is a diet of fresh and uncooked fruit, nuts, seeds, and vegetables.
• Dietary veganism: whereas vegans don't use animal products of any kind, dietary vegans restrict their veganism to their diet^[6]
• Freeganism argues that all commodities produced under capitalism, not only those from animal sources, contribute to exploitation and avoid buying anything, including food. Freegans thus focus on acquiring foods and other commodities by means other than purchasing, including foraging for wild plants and gardening with intent to cause as little violence and ecological destruction as possible through their consumption. While many freegans are vegans or vegetarians, others will eat animal products that would otherwise go to waste under the justification that doing this does not encourage further animal exploitation.

It should be noted that most vegetarians also are aware of avoiding products that may use animal ingredients not included in their labels or which use animal products in their manufacturing i.e. cheeses that use animal rennet, gelatin (from animal skin, bones, and connective tissue), some sugars that are whitened with bone char (e.g. cane sugar, but not beet sugar) and alcohol clarified with gelatin or crushed shellfish and sturgeon.

[edit] Semi-vegetarian diets

Semi-vegetarian diets are diets that primarily consist of vegetarian foods, but make exceptions for some non-vegetarian foods. These diets may be followed by those who choose to reduce the amount of animal flesh consumed, or sometimes as a way of transitioning to a vegetarian diet. These terms are neologisms based on the word "vegetarian". They may be regarded with contention by strict vegetarians, as they conflate terms for vegetarian & non-vegetarian diets.

• Semi-vegetarianism — A diet in which the only animal flesh consumed is seafood and/or poultry.
  • Pescetarianism — A diet in which the only animals consumed are fish or other seafood.
  • Pollotarianism — A diet in which the only animals consumed are fowl and poultry.
• Flexitarianism — A diet that consists primarily of vegetarian food, but that allows occasional exceptions.

[edit] Etymology

The first Vegetarian Society founded in 1847 claims to have "created the word vegetarian from the Latin 'vegetus' meaning 'lively' (which is how these early vegetarians claimed their diet made them feel) ..."^[7] However, the Oxford English Dictionary and other standard dictionaries state that the word was formed from the term "vegetable" and the suffix "-arian".^[8]

The Oxford English Dictionary also gives evidence that the word was already in use before the foundation of the Vegetarian Society:

• 1839 - "If I had had to be my own cook, I should inevitably become a vegetarian." (F. A. Kemble, Jrnl. Residence on Georgian Plantation (1863) 251)
• 1842 - "To tell a healthy vegetarian that his diet is very uncongenial with the wants of his nature." (Healthian, Apr. 34)

But it also notes that "The general use of the word appears to have been largely due to the formation of the Vegetarian Society at Ramsgate in 1847."

[edit] History

Main article: History of Vegetarianism

The earliest records of vegetarianism as a concept and practice amongst a significant amount of people concern ancient India^[9] and the ancient Greek civilization in Southern Italy and in Greece in the 6th century BCE.^[10] In both instances the diet was closely connected with the idea of nonviolence towards animals (called ahimsa in India) and was promoted by religious groups and philosophers.^[11] Following the Christianization of the Roman Empire in late antiquity, vegetarianism practically disappeared from Europe.^[12] Several orders of monks in medieval Europe restricted or banned the consumption of meat for ascetic reasons, but none of them eschewed fish.^[13] Vegetarianism was to reemerge somewhat in Europe during the Renaissance.^[14] It became a more widespread practice in the 19th and 20th centuries.

In 1847 the first Vegetarian Society was founded in England;^[15] Germany, the Netherlands and other countries followed. The International Vegetarian Union, a union of the national societies, was founded in 1908. In the Western world, the popularity of vegetarianism grew during the 20th century as a result of nutritional, ethical, and more recently, environmental and economic concerns. Today, Indian vegetarians, primarily lacto vegetarians, are estimated to make up more than 70% of the world's vegetarians. They make up 20–42% of the population in India, while less than 30% are regular meat-eaters.^[16][17][18] Surveys in the U.S. have found that roughly 1–2.8% of adults eat no meat, poultry, or fish.^{[19][20][21][22]}

[edit] Motivations and benefits

Vegetarianism can be followed for diverse reasons:^[23]

[edit] Religious and spiritual

Main article: Vegetarianism and religion

Hinduism and Jainism teach vegetarianism as moral conduct while Christianity and Islam generally do not. Buddhism in general does not prohibit meat eating, while Mahayana Buddhism encourages vegetarianism as beneficial for developing compassion. Minor denominations that advocate a fully vegetarian diet include the Seventh-day Adventists, the Rastafari movement and the Hare Krishnas.

[edit] Hinduism

Most major paths of Hinduism hold vegetarianism as an ideal. There are three main reasons for this: the principle of nonviolence (ahimsa) applied to animals;^[24] the intention to offer only "pure" (vegetarian) food to a deity and then to receive it back as prasad;^[25] and the conviction that non-vegetarian food is detrimental for the mind and for spiritual development. Nonviolence is a common concern of all the vegetarian traditions in Hinduism; the other two aspects are relevant for those who follow special spiritual paths.

However, the food habits of Hindus vary according to their community or caste and according to regional traditions. Hindu vegetarians usually eschew eggs but consume milk and dairy products, so they are lacto-vegetarians. Many coastal habitants are fish eaters.

[edit] Jainism

Main article: Jain vegetarianism

Followers of Jainism are either lacto-vegetarians or vegans. No products obtained from dead animals are allowed. Jains hold vegetarianism as the ideal diet in a similar fashion to Hindu traditions but with emphasis on their principle of all-round non-violence (ahimsa). This is for them an indispensable condition for spiritual progress.^[26][27] Some particularly dedicated individuals are fruitarians.^[28] Honey is forbidden, because its collection is seen as violence against the bees. Some Jains do not consume plant parts that grow underground such as roots and bulbs, because tiny animals may be killed when the plants are pulled up.^[29]

[edit] Buddhism

Main article: Vegetarianism in Buddhism

There are several sakskrit sutra where Buddha instruct his followers to avoid meat. Mahayana Buddhism generally advises monks to be strictly vegetarian, while other followers may choose whether to be vegetarian or not.

In the Theravada tradition, "[m]onks may not exercise choice when it comes to food" and thus, monks must eat meat if it is offered to them.[5] There are numerous Pali Tri Pitaka text showing Buddha ate food. Nothing is specified concerning the diets of those who are not monks.

[edit] Sikhism

Followers of the Sikh religion are divided in their opinion on whether their religion opposes meat consumption for Sikhs.^[30] Although many Sikhs eat meat, some Sikhs abstain from the consumption of meat and eggs.^[31]

In the case of meat, the Sikh Gurus have indicated their preference for a simple diet and depending on what one sees as a simple diet could be meat or vegetarian. Passages from the Guru Granth Sahib (the holy book of Sikhs, also known as the Adi Granth) says that fools argue over this issue. The tenth guru, Guru Gobind Singh, prohibited the Sikhs from the consumption of halal or Kutha (any ritually slaughtered meat) meat because of the Sikh belief that sacrificing an animal in the name of God is mere ritualism (something to be avoided).^[30]

[edit] Judaism

In the Jewish religion people are permitted to consume meat, with some restrictions. Kashrut (dietary law according to halakha, Jewish religious law) forbids the eating of meat and dairy products together. It also restricts those animals which can be eaten: mammals with split hooves that chew their cud, fish with fins and scales, and certain bird species. Animals are also required to be slaughtered in a manner that minimizes their suffering. Some Jewish people are vegetarian because a vegetarian diet makes it easier to abide by kashrut principles.

A number of well known rabbis, including Moshe Cordovero, Joseph Albo and Abraham Isaac Kook favored vegetarianism. According to some Kabbalists, only a mystic, who is able to sense and elevate the reincarnated human souls and "divine sparks", is permitted to consume meat, though eating the flesh of an animal might still cause spiritual damage to the soul. A number of Orthodox Jewish vegetarian groups and activists promote such ideas and believe that the halakhic permission to eat meat is a temporary leniency for those, who are not ready yet to accept the vegetarian diet [6].

There are also a large number of Jews who are vegetarians by choice with no relation to their religious beliefs. ^{[citation needed]}

Having ties with both ancient Judaism and Christianity members of the ancient Essene religious group practised strict vegetarianism sharing a similar belief with the Hindus'/Jains' idea of Ahimsa or "harmlessness". ^[32]

Translation of the Old Testament's Ten Commandments state "thou shall not kill", which is widely accepted as a command not to commit the act of murder. However, there is a Hebrew word which specificly means "murder" and that is not the same word used in the commandment, rather the generic word for "kill" was used. This can be taken as meaning not to kill at all, animals nor man.

[edit] Christianity

Main article: Christian vegetarianism

While vegetarianism is not common in Christian thought, the concept appears periodically. According to the Bible, in the beginning, humans and animals were vegetarian.^[33] After the fall of man, God permitted the eating of meat.^[34] Some Christians believe that the Bible explains that, in the future, humans and animals will return to vegetarianism.^[35]

Some Christian leaders, such as the Reverend Andrew Linzey, have supported the view that Jesus was a vegetarian. Some people believe that the Book of Daniel specifically promotes vegetarianism as beneficial.^[36] However, common theology argues that in this instance Daniel is rejecting food that is considered to be unholy by his faith (eating food that had been sacrificed to pagan gods), not strictly meat. Specifically, some believe that the New Testament of the Bible says that a person's dietary choice is of small consequence and should not be a point of confrontation.^[37] Therefore, some modern Christians consider vegetarianism as a perfectly acceptable personal choice that has many of the same implications as fasting.

[edit] Islam

See also: Islam and animals

Islam allows consumption of meat, if the meat is "halal," which is meat slaughtered by the Islamic standards. Disallowed meat is haram, which is non-permitted meat or meat not slaughtered according to Islamic standards.

Muslim vegetarians are very rare as the consumption of meat is intertwined with religious sacrificing of animals (namely caprids, bovines and camels) in Eid ul-Adha. Moreover, according to Islamic jurisprudence it is wrong to forbid that which is not forbidden. When travelling to locations where it is difficult to get halal meat, Muslims might eat fish or vegetables but they must be sure that the vegetarian food does not contain wine or other alcoholic taste enhancers. However, meat-eating is not compulsory and one may abstain from it if they do not like the taste or need to abstain for health reasons.

[edit] Neopaganism

Many who practice a faith that falls under the Neopagan umbrella also practice vegetarianism. Since Neopaganism generally emphasizes the sanctity of Earth and Nature, a vegetarian diet is sometimes adopted out of concern for the environment and/or animal welfare.^{[citation needed]} Conversely, many Neopagans view the consumption of meat as natural and a part of the cycles of life.^{[citation needed]}.

[edit] Health

Many people who choose a vegetarian diet do so as a way of improving their health. The possible benefits include improved health for nutritional reasons and improved food safety. In the therapy of some health disorders and/or food intolerances vegetarian diets are a necessary element.^[38]

[edit] Nutritional

Main article: Vegetarian nutrition

The American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada have stated: "Vegetarian diets offer a number of nutritional benefits, including lower levels of saturated fat, cholesterol, and animal protein as well as higher levels of carbohydrates, fiber, magnesium, potassium, folate, and antioxidants such as vitamins C and E and phytochemicals."^[39]

Some studies suggest that vegetarian food helps keep body weight under control ^[40] and reduces risk of Heart diseases ^{[41] [42]}. American vegetarians tend to have lower body mass index, lower levels of cholesterol, lower blood pressure, and less incidence of heart disease, hypertension, some forms of cancer, type 2 diabetes, renal disease, osteoporosis, dementias such as Alzheimer’s Disease and other disorders that may be diet-related.^[43] The health of a group of 27,000 vegetarians is currently being followed at a UK centre of the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC), the largest study of the long-term effects of vegetarian diet.

Although potentially diet related, most studies do not control for other lifestyle variables that typically coexist with vegetarianism, for example increased exercise as part of a general concern for physical wellbeing that often accompanies the adoption of a vegetarian lifestyle.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Food safety

[edit] E. coli

Vegetarianism is believed to reduce E. coli infections,^[44] and proponents point to the link between E.coli contaminations in food and industrial scale meat and dairy farms. The most recent E. coli outbreak in North America has once again demonstrated this link because the source of this E. coli was traced back to "a large ranch in the Salinas Valley that has a beef cattle operation" about a half-mile from the spinach fields where spinach became contaminated.^[45]

There are several variants of E. coli and they can be found in a healthy human gut, but the deadly strain, O157:H7 was virtually unheard of until the 1980s. It is believed that this strain evolved in the digestive system of grain fed cattle on large industrial farms.^[46] On these farms, grain is used as cattle feed because it is nutrient-packed and increases efficiency. A side effect of feeding grain to cattle is that it increases the acidity of their stomach — and it is in this acidic gut that the deadly O157:H7 thrives.

In 2003, an article in the Journal of Dairy Science found that between 30 and 80 percent of cattle carry E. coli O157:H7.^[47] In that same journal article, a quick fix was pointed out: Cows that are switched from a grain diet to a forage diet saw, within 5 days, a 1,000 fold decrease in the abundance of strain O157. But until changes like this are made, the source of many E. coli outbreaks will continue to be high-yield (industrial) meat and dairy farms.^[48]

More likely, rather than change the way cattle are fed or raised on industrial farms there will instead be pressure to find technological solutions like food irradiation, plans for HACCP, or simply cooking burgers longer. Suggestions like this have led some experts, like Professor of Science and Environmental Journalism at UC Berkeley, Michael Pollan, to suggest that "All of these solutions treat E. coli O157:H7 as an unavoidable fact of life rather than what it is: a fact of industrial agriculture."^[49]

Advocates such as Howard Lyman and groups such as People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals have promoted vegetarianism in response to cases of E. Coli infection.

E. Coli can be still acquired from any excrement-contaminated food or human commensal bacteria. The recent case of spinach and onions with E. Coli contamination in the U.S. shows that vegetarian foods are also susceptible to food safety concerns.^[50][51] In 2005, some people who had consumed branded triple-washed, pre-packaged lettuce were infected with E.Coli,^[52] and in 2007, branded lettuce salad were recalled after they were found to be contaminated by E.Coli^[53]In fact E. coli outbreaks have also involved unpasteurized apple^[54] and orange juice, milk, alfalfa sprouts,^[55] and even water.^[56]

[edit] Other food scares

Various animal food safety scares over recent years have led to increased numbers of people choosing a semi-vegetarian or vegetarian diet.[7] These scares have included Avian flu in poultry, foot-and-mouth in sheep, PCBs in farmed salmon, mercury in fish, generally high dioxin concentrations in animal products, and artificial growth hormones, antibiotics or BSE in cows. According to various organisations, vCJD in humans is strongly linked with exposure to the BSE agent that has been found in beef.^[57] Toxins such as lead and mercury can bioaccumulate in animal products in higher concentrations than what is considered safe. ^[58] Vegetables and fruits have a risk of being contaminated by pesticide residue or by banned chemicals being used to ripen fruits, therefore many vegetarians and vegans are also favoring organic products.^{[59] [60]}

[edit] Medical

Sometimes medical patients are advised to adhere to a vegetarian diet. These patients are asked to continue such a diet either for the course of the treatment or for longer durations.^[38] In alternative medicine Ayurveda and Siddha medicine are examples of medical treatments that prescribe such a vegetarian diet. In such cases, the patient either follows vegetarianism for the defined period or sometimes continues long after the treatment is over.

[edit] Physiological

There is considerable debate over whether humans are physiologically better suited to a herbivore, omnivore, or carnivore diet. The Vegetarian Resource Group and others however, have concluded that humans are naturally omnivores.[8][9][10]

Nutritional experts believe that humans evolved into eating meat as a result of huge climatic changes that took place about three-four million years ago, forests and jungles dried up and became open grasslands, thus opening up hunting and scavenging opportunities.^[61]

Statistical studies, such as comparing life expectancy with regional areas and local diets have found life expectancy considerably greater in southern France, where a semi-vegetarian Mediterranean diet is common (fresh fruit, vegetables, olive oil, goat cheese and fish), than northern France, where an omnivorous diet is more common (also including pork, beef, butter, cows cheese and cream).^[62] It must be noted that national life expectancy is affected by many factors, which include access to adequate healthcare and medicine. This makes it difficult to conclusively prove any correlation between regional diets and life expectancy.

[edit] Ethical

Main article: Ethics of vegetarianism

Many vegetarians consider the production, subsequent slaughtering, and consumption of meat or animal products as unethical. Reasons for these beliefs are varied and may include a belief in animal rights, an aversion to inflicting pain or harm on other living creatures, or a belief that the unnecessary killing of other animals is inherently wrong.

Other vegetarians believe that although production and consumption of meat may be acceptable on its own terms, the methods by which animals are reared in the commercial industry are unethical. The book Animal Liberation by Peter Singer has been very influential on the animal rights movement and specifically ethical vegetarianism and veganism. In developed countries, ethical vegetarianism has become popular particularly after the spread of factory farming, which has reduced the sense of husbandry that used to exist in farming and which has led to animals being treated as commodities. Many believe that the treatment that animals undergo in the production of meat and animal products obliges them to never eat meat or use animal products.

Some vegetarians also choose to avoid wearing clothing that has involved the death of animals, such as leather and fur.

[edit] Environmental

Main article: Environmental vegetarianism

Environmental vegetarianism is based on the belief that the production of meat and animal products for mass consumption, especially through factory farming, is environmentally unsustainable. In many countries, including the United States, intensive farming practices supply the needs of high animal protein diets. This constitutes the main concern of environmental vegetarianism issues.

According to the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) "Most of the world's population today subsists on vegetarian or near-vegetarian diets for reasons that are economic, philosophical, religious, cultural, or ecological."^[63]. Meanwhile, according to the United Nations Population Fund "Each U.S. citizen consumes an average of 260 lb. of meat per year, the world's highest rate. That is about 1.5 times the industrial world average, three times the East Asian average, and 40 times the average in Bangladesh."^[64]

Some of the concerns are the large amounts of fossil fuel and water resources consumed by intensive animal farming and the consequent emissions of harmful gases and chemicals. Animal agriculture has been pointed out as one of the largest sources of greenhouse gases — responsible for 18% of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions as measured in CO₂ equivalents. By comparison, all transportation emits 13.5% of the CO₂. Animal farming produces 65% of human-related nitrous oxide (which has 296 times the global warming potential of CO₂) and 37% of all human-induced methane (which is 23 times as warming as CO₂). It is also accused of generating 64% of the ammonia, which contributes to acid rain and acidification of ecosystems [11]. The habitat for wildlife provided by large industrial monoculture farms is very poor, and modern industrial agriculture has been considered a threat to biodiversity compared with farming practices such as organic farming, permaculture, arable, pastoral, and rainfed agriculture.

Animals fed on grain, and those that rely on grazing need far more water than grain crops.^[65] According to the USDA, growing the crops necessary to feed farmed animals requires nearly half of the United States' water supply and 80% of its agricultural land. Additionally, animals raised for food in the U.S. consume 90% of the soy crop, 80% of the corn crop, and a total of 70% of its grain.^[66]

When tracking food animal production from the feed trough to consumption, the inefficiencies of meat, milk and egg production range from 4:1 energy input to protein output ratio up to 54:1. As it was published, "U.S. could feed 800 million people with grain that livestock eat, Cornell ecologist advises animal scientists Future water and energy shortages predicted to change face of American agriculture" ^[67] To produce animal based food seems to be, according to these studies, typically much less efficient than the harvesting of grains, vegetables, legumes, seeds and fruits. Exception is made of animals that are grazed rather than fed, especially those grazed on land that could not be used for other purposes.

According to the theory of Trophic dynamics, it requires 10 times as many crops to feed animals being bred for meat production as it would to feed the same amount of people on a vegetarian diet. Currently, 70% of all the wheat, corn and other grain produced is fed to farmed animals^[68]. This has led many proponents of vegetarianism to believe that it is ecologically irresponsible to consume meat.

Another argument is that farmed animals produce about 130 times as much excrement as the entire human population of the United States. Since factory farms don't have sewage treatment systems as cities and towns do, this ends up polluting ground water, destroying the topsoil, and contaminating the air.^[69]; meat-eaters are responsible for the production of all of this waste — about 86,000 pounds per second.^[70]

[edit] Labor conditions

Some groups promote vegetarianism as a way to offset poor treatment and working conditions of workers in the contemporary meat industry. These groups cite studies showing the psychological damage caused by working in the meat industry, especially in factory and industrialized settings, and argue that the meat industry violates its laborers' human rights by delegating difficult and distressing tasks without adequate counselling, training and debriefing.^{[71][72][73][74]}

[edit] Economical

Similar to environmental vegetarianism is the concept of economic vegetarianism. An economic vegetarian is someone who practises vegetarianism from either the philosophical viewpoint concerning issues such as public health and curbing world starvation, the belief that the consumption of meat is economically unsound, part of a conscious simple living strategy or just out of necessity. According to the WorldWatch Institute, "Massive reductions in meat consumption in industrial nations will ease their health care burden while improving public health; declining livestock herds will take pressure off rangelands and grainlands, allowing the agricultural resource base to rejuvenate. As populations grow, lowering meat consumption worldwide will allow more efficient use of declining per capita land and water resources, while at the same time making grain more affordable to the world's chronically hungry."^[75] Economic vegetarians also may include people from third world countries who follow a de facto vegetarian diet due to the high price of meat.

[edit] Psychological

Some vegetarians choose to be so in part because they find meat and meat products aesthetically unappetizing. The Whole Earth Vegetarian Catalogue's '49 good reasons for being a vegetarian' says that one reason for being a vegetarian is that "Decaying animal parts, whether in a freezer case or served in restaurants, can never be as aesthetically pleasing to the senses as the same foods made from wholesome vegetable sources. Only habit can allow one not to perceive this: a change in diet makes this self evident."

The metaphor by Douglas Dunn is that if one gives a young child an apple and a live chicken, the child would instinctively play with the chicken and eat the apple, whereas if a cat were presented with the same choices, its natural impulse would be the opposite.^[76]

Though this may be considered a flawed comparison, as cats are carnivores and not omnivores, it has been noted that comparatively omnivorous human-like species such as chimpanzees' offspring may not instinctively kill such hunted prey as Senegal Bushbabys when presented with one and banana or other fruit either, despite hunting and eating them^[77]. The comparison may also suffer from the "Appeal to nature" logical fallacy.

In a similar assertion, Scott Adams, who is also a vegetarian, once wrote humorously: "I point out that a live cow makes a lion salivate, whereas a human just wants to say "moo" and see if the cow responds" [12].

Moreover, research on the psychology of meat consumption suggests that consumers of meat may need to use defense mechanisms such as psychological numbing to distance themselves from the notion that they are eating animals.^[78]

[edit] Cultural influence

Some people may choose vegetarianism because they were raised in a vegetarian household or because of a vegetarian partner, family member, or friend. A predominantly and traditionally vegetarian society also facilitates the continuance of such a tradition.

In countries where religious belief have become inherent to society and daily life, vegetarianism is more easily seen.

[edit] Health effects

Many people live healthy lives as vegetarians (vegetarian Olympic athletes are often cited) and though it is commonly argued that vegetarians have higher rates of mineral or vitamin deficiencies, these nutrients can be found in green leafy vegetables, grains, nuts, and fortified juices or soymilk.^[79]. Studies suggest that a vegetarian diet may help keep body weight under control ^[80] and reduce the risk of heart disease ^{[81] [82]}.

[edit] Longevity

Vegetarianism does increase longevity, but not more than an occasional/low meat eating;

A 1999 metastudy^[83] compared six major studies from western countries. The study found that the mortality ratio was the lowest in fish eaters (0.82) followed by vegetarians (0.84) and occasional meat eaters (0.84) and which was then followed by regular meat eaters (1.0) and vegan (1.0) [13]. In "Mortality in British vegetarians",^[84] it was concluded that "British vegetarians have low mortality compared with the general population. Their death rates are similar to those of comparable non-vegetarians, suggesting that much of this benefit may be attributed to non-dietary lifestyle factors such as a low prevalence of smoking and a generally high socio-economic status, or to aspects of the diet other than the avoidance of meat and fish."

Among these meta studies, the Adventist Health Study is an ongoing study of life expectancy in Seventh-day Adventists following different behaviour patterns. The researchers found that a combination of different lifestyle choices could influence life expectancy by as much as 10 years. Among the lifestyle choices investigated, a vegetarian diet was estimated to confer an extra 1-1/2 to 2 years of life. The researchers concluded that "the life expectancies of California Adventist men and women are higher than those of any other well-described natural population" at 78.5 years for men and 82.3 years for women. The life expectancy of California Adventists surviving to age 30 was 83.3 years for men and 85.7 years for women.^[85] However, this study of Adventist health study is again incorporated into meta studies titled "Does low meat consumption increase life expectancy in humans?" published in American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, which again made the similar conclusion that occasional/low meat eating and other life style choices significantly increase the life expectancy.^[86] The study also concluded that "Some of the variation in the survival advantage in vegetarians may have been due to marked differences between studies in adjustment for confounders, the definition of vegetarian, measurement error, age distribution, the healthy volunteer effect, and intake of specific plant foods by the vegetarians." It further states that "This raises the possibility that a low-meat, high plant-food dietary pattern may be the true causal protective factor rather than simply elimination of meat from the diet." In a recent review of studies relating low-meat diet patterns to all-cause mortality, Singh noted that "5 out of 5 studies indicated that adults who followed a low meat, high plant-food diet pattern experienced significant or marginally significant decreases in mortality risk relative to other patterns of intake."

[edit] Nutrition

Main article: Vegetarian nutrition

Western vegetarian diets are typically high in carotenoids, but relatively low in long-chain n-3 fatty acids, and vitamin B₁₂. Vegans can have particularly low intake of vitamin B₁₂ and calcium if they do not eat enough items such as collard greens, leafy greens, tempeh and tofu. High levels of dietary fibre, folic acid, vitamins C and E, and magnesium, and low consumption of saturated fat could all be beneficial aspects of a vegetarian diet. The health impact of high carbohydrate and n-6 fatty acid intake, and relatively low consumption of protein, retinol and zinc, is unclear as vegetarians probably have levels close to those recommended.^[87][88]

Vegetarian diets typically contain similar levels of iron to non-vegetarian diets but this has lower bioavailability than iron from meat sources, and its absorption can be inhibited by other dietary constituents. Vegan diets are usually higher in iron than vegetarian diets because dairy products are low in iron.^[88] Iron stores are lower in vegetarians than non-vegetarians and iron deficiency is thus more common in vegetarian and vegan women and children (adult males are rarely iron deficient), but iron deficiency anaemia is rare.^[89][90]

Vitamin B₁₂ in plants varies widely depending on the type of plant and the soil in which it is grown.^[91] Therefore the main sources of this vitamin for vegetarians are dairy products and eggs, fortified foods and dietary supplements. Clinical evidence of Vitamin B₁₂ deficiency is uncommon^[92][93] given to the fact that the human body preserves B₁₂, using it without destroying the substance. Vegetarians who were previously meat eaters may preserve, up to 30 years, stores of Vit B12 in their bodies.^[91]. The recommendation of taking supplements has been recently challenged by studies indicating that exogenous B12 may actually interfere with the proper absorption of this viatmin in its natural form.^[94] The research on vitamin B₁₂ sources has increased in the latest years [14] and researchers at Hiroshima University have developed methods for growing plants rich in vitamin B₁₂. [15]

A vegetarian diet does not include fish — a major source of Omega 3 fatty acids; although some plant-based sources exist such as soy, walnuts, pumpkin seeds, canola oil and, especially, hempseed and flaxseed. Plant foods can provide alpha-linolenic acid but not the long-chain n-3 fatty acids EPA and DHA. Eggs and dairy products contain low levels of EPA and DHA. Vegetarians, and particularly vegans, have lower levels of EPA and DHA than meat-eaters. The health effects of low levels of EPA and DHA are unknown but it is unlikely that supplementation with alpha-linolenic acid will significantly increase their levels.^[95]

Calcium intake in vegetarians is similar to non-vegetarians. Impaired bone mineralisation which has been attached to Veganism, is less evident in vegetarians.^[96]

Vitamin D intake is not lower in Vegetarians even if they do not consume fish oils. Products including milk, soy milk and cereal grains are rich in Vitamin D^[97] and mushrooms provide over 2700 IU per serving (approx. 3 oz or 1/2 cup) of vitamin D₂, if exposed to just 5 minutes of UV light after being harvested;^[98].

Protein intake in vegetarian and vegan diets is only slightly lower than in omnivores and satisfy all daily requirements ^[99]. Studies by the University of Harvard as well as other studies conducted in the United States, Great Britain, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and various European countries, have confirmed that vegetarian diets provide more than sufficient protein intake as long as a variety of plant sources are available and consumed ^[100]. Proteins are composed of amino acids, and a common concern with protein acquired from vegetable sources is an adequate intake of the "essential amino acids", which cannot be synthesized by the human body. While dairy and egg products provide complete sources for lacto-ovo vegetarians, the only vegetable sources with all eight types of essential amino acids are soy, hempseed, amaranth, buckwheat and quinoa. It is not necessary, however, to obtain protein from these sources -- the essential amino acids can also be obtained by eating a variety of complementary plant sources that, in combination, provide all eight essential amino acids (eg. rice and beans, or hummus and pita). While it is a common myth that complementary protein sources must be combined within a single meal to maximize nutritional benefit, a varied intake of complementary sources over the course of a day (or a number of days) is generally sufficient, especially when protein consumption is substantially above minimum physiological requirements.^[101]

[edit] Demographics

One observational study in British Medical Journal found that high childhood IQ was associated with vegetarianism in later life. According to the study, "Higher IQ at age 10 years was associated with an increased likelihood of being vegetarian at age 30 [...] IQ remained a statistically significant predictor of being vegetarian as an adult after adjustment for social class (both in childhood and currently), academic or vocational qualifications, and sex." ^{[102][103][104]}

[edit] Gender

A 1992 market research study conducted by the Yankelovich research organisation claimed that "of the 12.4 million people who call themselves vegetarian, 68 percent are female while only 32 percent are male." ^[105]

Some studies show that vegetarian women are much more likely to have female babies. A study of 6,000 pregnant women in 1998 "found that while the national average in Britain is 106 boys born to every 100 girls, for vegetarian mothers the ratio was just 85 boys to 100 girls."^[106] However, the research was dismissed by Catherine Collins, of the British Dietetic Association, as a "statistical fluke".^[106]

There is some speculation that diets high in soy, due to high isoflavone content, can have a feminizing effect on humans due to the phytoestrogens contained. Proponents of this theory claim that diets high in isoflavones promote earlier onset of female puberty and delayed male puberty.^[107] These effects, however, are not observed in populations of the Far East, where soy-rich diets are traditional.

[edit] Country-specific information

Main article: Vegetarianism in specific countries

Vegetarianism is viewed in different ways around the world. In some areas there is cultural and even legal support, but in others the diet is poorly understood or even frowned upon. In many countries food labeling is in place that makes it easier for vegetarians to identify foods compatible with their diets.

In India, not only is there food labeling, but many restaurants are marketed and signed as being either "Vegetarian" or "Non-Vegetarian". People who are vegetarian in India are usually Lacto-vegetarians, and therefore, to cater for this market, the majority of "vegetarian" restaurants in India do serve dairy products while eschewing egg products. Most Western vegetarian restaurants, in comparison, do serve eggs and egg-based products. A colloquial term for a vegetarian who eats eggs is "Eggitarian".

[edit] Vegetarian Textiles

[edit] Leather

Some vegetarians will choose not to wear leather. Because leather footwear and other accessories are expected in some workplaces, there are many specialist suppliers that sell belts, shoes, safety boots, jackets and briefcases that share the appearance of leather but are in fact made of synthetic materials generically known as Vegan leather. High-end fashion designer Stella McCartney is famed for her refusal to use leather, fur or other animal products in her range of clothes and accessories and is thus popular with wealthier vegetarians.

[edit] Silk

Many vegetarians refuse to wear silk because of the large number of silkworms that are killed in the harvest. Alternatives have begun appearing lately, such as silk that is harvested from abandoned cocoons, called "Peace Silk"^[108][109], and plant based sources, such as finely woven bamboo cloth, or soy ("Azalon") cloth.

[edit] Wool

Although shearing sheep for wool does not usually involve the death of the animal, many vegetarians, especially vegans, do not wear or use wool. A common alternative for cold-weather wear is polar fleece, which has the added benefit of being available in versions that are made from recycled plastic.

[edit] See also

• Vegetarian cuisine
• List of vegan foods
• List of diets

[edit] References

v • d • e Vegetarianism
Diets	Lacto-ovo vegetarianism · Lacto vegetarianism · Ovo vegetarianism · Veganism · Fruitarianism · Raw veganism
Information	History of Vegetarianism · Vegetarianism in specific countries · Vegetarian nutrition · Vegan nutrition
Issues	Environmental vegetarianism · Economic vegetarianism · Ethics of eating meat
Food	Vegetarian cuisine · List of vegan foods · Meat analogue · Tofurkey
Beverages	Vegan wine · Plant milk
Organisations	American Vegetarian Party · Christian Vegetarian Association · European Vegetarian Union · Food for Life · International Vegetarian Union · Massachusetts Animal Rights Coalition · Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine · Tibetan Volunteers for Animals · Toronto Vegetarian Association · Vegan Society · Vegan Society of Australia · Vegetarian Network Victoria · Vegetarian Society · Veggies
Restaurants	Blossoming Lotus · Chicago Diner · Cranks restaurant · Dandelion Communitea Cafe · Komala's Restaurants · Maoz · Moosewood Restaurant · Saravana Bhavan · Spiral Diner
Literature	Arkangel (magazine) · The China Study · Diet for a New America · No Compromise (magazine) · The Vegan Sourcebook · VegNews
Events	Christmas Without Cruelty Fayre · World Vegan Day · World Vegetarian Day
Religion	Vegetarianism and religion · Buddhist vegetarianism · Catharism · Christian Vegetarian Association · Christian vegetarianism · Doukhobor · Food for Life · Jain vegetarianism · Seventh-day Adventist Church · Tolstoyan
Other	Vegan organic gardening

v • d • e Animal rights
Activists	Nicolas Atwood · Greg Avery · David Barbarash · Rod Coronado · Barry Horne · Ronnie Lee · Keith Mann · Ingrid Newkirk · Andrew Tyler · Jerry Vlasak · Paul Watson · Robin Webb  ·
Groups/campaigns	Americans For Medical Advancement · ADI · Animal Aid · Animal Legal Defense Fund · Animal Liberation Front · ALFSG · Animal liberation movement · Animal Liberation Press Office · Animal Rights Militia · Born Free Foundation · BUAV · CAAT · Center on Animal Liberation Affairs · Compassion Over Killing · Dr Hadwen Trust · IDA · Great Ape Project · Hunt Retribution Squad · Hunt Saboteurs Association · Justice Department · LACS · LLF · MARC · NAVS · PETA · RCALB · PCRM · Primate Freedom Project · SARC · SNGP · Sea Shepherd Conservation Society · SPEAK · SHAC · Viva! · Uncaged Campaigns ·
Issues	Animal Enterprise Terrorism Act · Animal Rights · Animal Liberation · Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act · Animal testing · Bile bear · Bull fighting · Covance · Dairy industry  · Dog fighting · Factory farming · Fish farming · Foie gras · Fox hunting · Fur farming · Great Ape research ban · Greyhound racing · Green Scare · Horse racing · Horse slaughter · Hunting · Huntingdon Life Sciences · International trade in primates · Meat industry · Nafovanny · Non-human primate experiments · Open rescue · Operation Backfire · Pet shops · Puppy farming · Silk farming · Speciesism · Veal · Veganism · Vegetarianism
Cases	Britches · Cambridge University primates · Newchurch Guinea Pig Farm · Oxford University Park Farm · Pit of despair · Shamrock Farm · Silver Spring monkeys · Unnecessary Fuss
Writers	Steven Best · Stephen R.L. Clark · Gary Francione · Gill Langley · Keith Mann · Tom Regan · Richard D. Ryder · Peter Singer · Steven M. Wise
Books	Animal Liberation (1977)
Magazines	Arkangel · Bite Back · No Compromise
Films	Behind the Mask (2006) · Earthlings (2005) · Unnecessary Fuss (1984)
Categories	Animal testing · Animal Liberation Front · Animal rights movement · Animal rights