Anthropomorphism
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Anthropomorphism is the attribution of uniquely human characteristics and qualities to nonhuman beings, inanimate objects, or natural or supernatural phenomena. Animals, forces of nature, games, and unseen or unknown sources of chance are frequent subjects of anthropomorphous. The term is derived from two Greek words, ἄνθρωπος (anthrōpos), meaning human, and μορφή (morphē), meaning shape or form. The suffix '-ism' originates from the morpheme -ισμός or -ισμα in the Greek language.
It is a common and seemingly natural tendency for humans to perceive nonhuman animals or inanimate objects as having human characteristics, one which some suggest provides a window into the way in which humans perceive themselves. Common examples of this tendency include naming cars or begging machines to work.
It is also probably true that humans have a natural tendency to deny common traits with other species, most particularly apes, feeling that humans are unique and "special." This tendency may be described as anthropomorphophobia and has been referred to as Anthropodenial by primatologist Frans de Waal, author of Our Inner Ape and other books and articles.
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[edit] In religions and mythologies
In religion and mythology, anthropomorphism refers to the perception of a divine being or beings in human form, or the recognition of human qualities in these beings. Many mythologies are almost entirely concerned with anthropomorphic deities who express human characteristics such as jealousy, hatred, or love. The Greek gods, such as Zeus and Apollo, were often depicted in human form exhibiting both commendable and despicable human traits. Anthropomorphism in this case is sometimes referred to as Anthropotheism.
[edit] In Biblical literalism
Numerous sects throughout history have been called anthropomorphites, including a sect in Egypt in the 4th century, and a group in the Roman Catholic Church in the 10th century, who literally interpreted Genesis chapter 1, verse 27: "So God created man in his own image, in the image of God he created him; male and female he created them."[1]
[edit] In Hinduism
The ten avatars of the Hindu supreme god Vishnu possess both human and divine forms and qualities, although their degrees of divinity vary. In Vaishnavism, a monotheistic faith, Vishnu is omniscient and benevolent, in contrast to gods of the Greek and Roman religions. See Conceptions of God in Hinduism.
[edit] Opposition to anthropomorphism
Many religions and philosophies have condemned anthropomorphism for various reasons. Some Ancient Greek philosophers did not approve of, and were often hostile to their people's mythology. These philosophers often developed monotheistic views. Plato's (427–347 BCE) Demiurge (craftsman) in the Timaeus and Aristotle's (384–322 BCE) prime mover in his Physics are notable examples. The Greek philosopher Xenophanes (570–480 BCE) said that "the greatest god" resembles man "neither in form nor in mind." (Clement of Alexandria, Miscellanies V xiv 109.1-3). The similarity of these philosophers' concepts of god to the concepts found in the Bible facilitated the incorporation of much pre-Christian Greek philosophy into the Medieval Christian world view by the Scholastics, most notably Thomas Aquinas. Anthropomorphism of God is condemned by Islam, since Muslims feel that God is beyond human limits of physical comprehension. This conception is also championed by the doctrinal view of Nirguna Brahman.
From the perspective of adherents of religions in which the deity or deities have human characteristics, it may be more accurate to describe the phenomenon as theomorphism, or the giving of divine qualities to humans, rather than anthropomorphism, the giving of human qualities to the divine. According to their beliefs, the deity or deities usually existed before humans, therefore humans were created in the form of the divine. However, for those who do not believe in the doctrine of the religion, the phenomenon can be considered anthropomorphism. In fact, Stewart Elliott Guthrie, in his book Faces in the Clouds: A New Theory of Religion (1993), theorizes that all religions are simply anthropomorphisms that originate in the human brain's tendency to over-detect the presence or vestiges of other humans in the natural world.
Interestingly, Charles Dodgson's novel Alice's Adventures in Wonderland was banned in Hunan because "animals should not use human language" and it "put animals and human beings on the same level."
[edit] In literature
Anthropomorphism is a well-established device in literature. Aesop's Fables, a collection of short tales written or recorded by the ancient Greek citizen Aesop, make extensive use of anthropomorphism, in which animals and weather illustrate simple moral lessons. The Indian books Panchatantra (The Five priniciples) and The Jataka tales employ anthropomorphized animals to illustrate various principles of life.
Anthropomorphism is commonly employed in books for children, such as those by Lewis Carroll, Roald Dahl, Brian Jacques, C.S. Lewis, and Beatrix Potter. Rev. W. Awdry's Railway Series depicts steam locomotives and diesel locomotives with human-like faces and personalities, which lead to the popular television series Thomas the Tank Engine. A particularly famous example from Edwardian England, with an enduring appeal, is The Wind in the Willows by Kenneth Graham, with the characters of Rat, Mole, Badger, Toad and the Weasels.
However, anthropomorphism is not exclusively used as a device in children's literature: Terry Pratchett is notable for having several anthropomorphic characters in his Discworld series, the best-known of which is the character Death. Piers Anthony also wrote a series regarding the seven Incarnations of Immortality, which are Death, Time, Fate, War, Nature, Evil, and Good. Neil Gaiman's Sandman series anthropomorphizes seven aspects of the living experience: Destiny, Death, Dream, Destruction, Desire, Despair, and Delirium. Perhaps most famously, George Orwell converted several key actors in the Russian Revolution into anthropomorphic animals in his satire Animal Farm. These are only a few examples; anthropomorphism is not an uncommon device in adult literature.
[edit] In technical fields
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Hackers and programmers are known to anthropomorphize technology, mostly as a time-saving metaphorical device. Complex technology, specifically computers, can exhibit complicated behaviors that can be lengthy to describe in purely inanimate terms. (Note that describing computer systems as having behaviors may itself be considered a kind of anthropomorphism). Therefore, hackers may use human actions and emotions to describe the behavior of a computer system. For example, if a program encounters minor errors but can still accomplish its task, it may do so but send the user an error message. Especially in instances where the error encountered is considered trivial, a hacker might describe the computer as "complaining." This human action (complaining) conveys that there is a difficulty, while acknowledging the trivial nature of the difficulty, and perhaps the fact that the program did what was required despite the difficulty.
Anthropomorphism particularly effects the field of robotics, especially in instances of robots that are given human forms.
See the section on anthropomorphism in the Jargon File for more information, including the self-referentially hackish joke on the topic "Don't anthropomorphize computers: they hate that".
This form of anthropomorphism is also common in other technical fields. For example, a chemist might casually explain a covalent bond between carbon and hydrogen by asserting that the carbon atom "shares" electrons with the hydrogen atom, although the chemist knows that atoms are incapable of the human connotative meaning of sharing. A similar example in biology is the selfish gene theory.
Similarly, in finance, a financial market that rises and falls might be described as "fickle." However, because it is a process made possible by humans, and directly effected by human actions (particularly reactions to market forces), the market is theoretically capable of reflecting human emotions. If the criterion for anthropomorphism is that the subject is ascribed human attributes it does not have, financial markets and other demographic forces may not qualify. However, they might be considered true personifications of human emotion, and qualify much like the personification of desire.
[edit] In artificial intelligence
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The study and development of artificial intelligence identifies the tendency to see human characteristics in inanimate objects as potentially more significant, especially as computers begin to reach the point at which they can recognize spoken language. Some computers display very specific and specialized categories of simulated human behaviour, such as learning from mistakes, anticipating input, playing chess and other games which require human-like intelligence.
[edit] In rhetoric and logical reasoning
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Anthropomorphism in the form of personification consists of creating imaginary persons who are the embodiment of an abstract concept such as lust, war, or death. This is common in many mythologies, of which the best known are Greek and Roman, and fantasy fiction.
See Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse
In classical rhetoric, personification is a figure of speech, or more specifically, a trope, that employs the deliberate use of anthropomorphism, usually in attempt to make an emotional appeal. In rhetorical theory, a distinction is often drawn between personification (anthropomorphism of inanimate, but real, objects) and figures such as apostrophe, in which an absent people or abstract concepts are addressed.
An example of rhetorical personification:
A tree whose hungry mouth is prest
Against the earth's sweet-flowing breast.– Joyce Kilmer, Trees
An example of rhetorical apostrophe:
O eloquent, just, and mighty Death!
– Walter Raleigh, History of the World
Using anthropomorphized caricatures or projecting human qualities on conceptual entities or inanimate objects in reasoning is also known as committing a pathetic fallacy (in logical reasoning, this is not a pejorative term).
[edit] See also
[edit] References
- ^ This article incorporates content from the 1728 Cyclopaedia, a publication in the public domain. Anthropomorphite.
- Shipley, Orby. ed. A glossary of ecclesiastical terms. 1872.